If we could use one word to describe our modern society, we would use the internet. This is obvious; it is everywhere. It took centuries to come to this state. Because of their contributions, we are living a stress-free life. Their life helps us understand the ancient progression of life and technology. Certain activities helped us become modern humans. History, as we know it, begins with writing. But the human story is much older, stretching back millions of years, deep into a time before cities, kings, or alphabets. This is the realm of prehistory, where clues to human life come not from books, but from bones, tools, cave walls, and the soil itself.

Prehistoric societies were not static or simple. They were diverse, intelligent, adaptive, and constantly evolving. These societies laid the biological, cultural, and technological groundwork for everything that followed — from agriculture to religion to art and architecture.

Understanding prehistoric societies helps us answer essential questions:
Where did we come from?
How did we survive?
What made us human?

Detailed Timeline of Prehistoric Cultures and Technologies

Pleistocene Epoch (Beginning approx. 2.6 million years ago - End approx. 11,700 years ago)

• Approx. 2.5 million years ago: Lower Palaeolithic Period Begins.

• Oldowan Culture (East Africa): Emergence of the earliest stone tools, primarily simple pebble tools (choppers, chopping tools, discoids, polyhedrons, spheroids, scrapers, awls, burins) made using percussion techniques (stone hammer, block-on-block). Associated with Homo habilis and Homo ergaster (African Homo erectus).

• Early Bed I at Olduvai Gorge: Forested environment, gradually changing to drier conditions.

• Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania): Earliest evidence of Oldowan culture.

• Approx. 1.9 to 1.6 million years ago: Classic Oldowan artifacts: Found in Bed I and the Lower part of Bed II at Olduvai Gorge.

• Approx. 1.85 to 1.75 million years ago: Dmanisi (Georgia, Eastern Europe): Earliest human occupations (likely Homo erectus or Homo ergaster) outside Africa, characterized by Oldowan-type pebble core culture. Site occupied repeatedly, indicating a sustained regional group of hominids.

• Attirampakkam (India): Acheulian hominids present before 1.07 MYA (dated directly by cosmic ray exposure method).

• Approx. 1.6 million years ago: Developed Oldowan Culture Flourishes: Tools include protohandaxes, representing a transition towards bifacial tools.

• Approx. 1.51 +/- 0.07 million years ago (MYA) :Attirampakkam (India): Direct dating of Acheulian horizon.

• Approx. 1.4 million years ago: Ubeidiya (Israel, Middle East): Evidence of a culture (Israel Variant of Oldowan - IVO) with close similarity to Oldowan cultural assemblage. Considered a station in Homo erectus migration into Eurasia.

• Approx. 1.2 to 0.7 million years ago (MYA):Isampur (India): Early Acheulian culture, with tools made predominantly from limestone.

• Late Lower Palaeolithic:Acheulean Culture: Associated with Homo erectus in Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia. Characterized by more refined bifacial tools like handaxes (pointed, cordate, ovate, peariform, lanceolate) and cleavers, often made using the Cylinder Hammer technique.

• Clactonian Culture (approx. 400,000 years ago): Named after Clacton-on-sea in England, characterized by tools made on large, massive flakes (unifacial scrapers and U/V shaped cleavers) often removed by direct hammer or anvil technique. Associated with Homo erectus.

• Middle Palaeolithic Period Begins (approx. 300,000 years ago):Mousterian Culture: Associated with Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) in Europe and the Near East. Characterized by smaller tools made on flakes, often from carefully prepared cores using the Levalloisean technique. Includes side scrapers and triangular points.

• Upper Palaeolithic Period Begins (approx. 50,000 years ago):Emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man).

• Blade and Burin Industries: Characterized by uniformly thin, elongated, parallel-sided flakes (blades) produced using the blade technique (often with punching). Tools include knife blades, borers/awls, burins/gravers.

• Bone Tool Technology: First appearance of tools made on bone, antler, and ivory (e.g., baton-de-commandement, fish hooks, harpoons, needles, bone lance points, spear throwers) in European sites.

• Palaeolithic Art: Introduction of cave paintings and rock carvings.

• Aurignacian Culture (Europe): Early Upper Palaeolithic, includes Audi Stage, Chatelperronean/Lower Aurignacian, True Aurignacian/Middle Aurignacian, Gravettian/Upper Aurignacian. Characterized by knife blades, gravers, bone tools, and early art forms.

• Solutrean Culture (Europe): Middle Upper Palaeolithic, noted for advanced pressure flaking, producing characteristic laurel and willow leaf points, bone needles, and dart throwers.

• Magdalenian Culture (Europe): Late Upper Palaeolithic, marked by sophisticated bone tools (spearheads, arrowheads, harpoons, needles), remarkable cave art, and home art.

Holocene Epoch (Beginning approx. 11,700 years ago - Present)

• Mesolithic Period Begins (approx. 10,000 years Before Present (BP)):Transitional Period: Between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, date varies by geographic region.

• Microlith Technology: Production of extremely tiny tools (microliths) using fluting and pressure flaking techniques. Often hafted onto wooden or bone shafts to create composite tools (e.g., lunates, triangles, trapezes, backed blades).

• Nomadic Hunter-Gatherers: People continued to be nomadic but developed specialized hunting and gathering mechanisms.

• European Mesolithic Phases:Azilian: Characterized by small disc-shaped scrapers, back blunted knives, flat harpoons, and painted pebbles.

• Tardenoisean: Dominance of geometric microliths (triangles, trapezes, lozenges, lunates/crescents).

• Maglemosean: Cultural remains found in bogs, including harpoons with barbs, dugout canoes, stone axes, and adzes.

• Asturian: Remains found in kitchen middens, includes pick axes and bone borers.

• Campignian: Stone industry includes Campignian axe, crude pottery, and land habitation in pits.

• Neolithic Period Begins (approx. 10,000 BCE in some places, as late as 4000 BCE in Europe):"Neolithic Revolution" (V. Gordon Childe): Shift from food gathering to food producing (agriculture and animal domestication).

• New Technologies: Development of pottery (initially handmade, later wheel-made), polished/ground stone tools (celts: axes, adzes, chisels, wedges, grinding stones, saddle querns, mace heads, fabricators/hammer stones).

• Settled Communities: Development of villages, regular food supply, increased population, craft specialization, division of labor, concept of property.

• Artistic Changes: Naturalistic art becomes rare; stylized designs on pottery.

• Weaving: Invention using flax fibers and sheep wool.

• Chalcolithic / Bronze Age Begins (Varies by region, e.g., India: c. 3600-900 BC):Transitional Period: Early copper metallurgy appears alongside widespread stone tools.

• Bronze Age: Systematic and widespread use of bronze (copper-tin alloy). Invention of writing coincides with its early beginnings.

• Chalcolithic Cultures in India:Salvada Culture (c. 2000-1700 BC)

• Kayatha Culture (c. 2100-1800 BC)

• Ahar Culture (c. 3600-1500 BC)

• Malwa Culture (c. 1700-1450 BC)

• OCP (Ochre Colored Pottery) Culture (c. 1800-1400 BC)

• Jorwe Culture (c. 1500-900 BC)

• Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (Indian subcontinent):Pre-Harappan Phase (7000-3300 BC): Seen in Mehrgarh (Aceramic and Ceramic Neolithic phases).

• Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BC): Emergence of urban features like town planning, scripts, and metal technology.

• Mature/Urban Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BC): Full growth of urban economy and society (Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal). Twin dwelling structures (citadel and lower town), writing (undeciphered), extensive trade, standardized weights and measures, distinct pottery (black and red ware).

• Late Harappan Phase (1900-1300 BC): Gradual collapse of urban character, eventual disappearance of IVC.

• Iron Age Begins (Varies by region, e.g., Ancient Near East, Greece, India: 12th century BCE; South Asia: primarily late prehistoric/early historic):Advent of Iron Technology: Use of iron implements for tools and weapons becomes prominent.

• South Asia:Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture (Northern India, c. 1000-600 BC): Early Iron Age, fine grey pottery with painted designs, associated with rural areas and agriculturists.

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture (Northern India, c. 600-100 BC): Evolved version of PGW, high-quality glossy black pottery, associated with cities and the "second urbanization" in the Gangetic plains. Emergence of Mahajanapadas and first Indian empire (Magadhan Empire). Brahmi script appears.

• Megalithic Culture (Peninsular India, c. 1000 BC - 1 BC): Distinguished by large stone structures for funeral or ceremonial purposes (e.g., chambered graves like passage chamber tombs, port hole chambers/cists; unchambered graves like pit burials, menhirs, cairn circles, terracotta sarcophagus burials; non-sepulchral menhirs and stone alignments). Associated with black and red ware pottery and iron objects.

What Defines a Prehistoric Society?

Prehistoric societies existed before written language, which means everything we know about them comes from archaeology, anthropology, and genetics. They are typically divided into three broad ages:

• The Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) – marked by simple tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

• The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) – a transitional period of innovation and adaptation.

• The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) – when farming, settlements, and social structures began to form.

These societies weren't primitive in the way we often assume. They were skilled, adaptive, and deeply connected to their environment.

Early Art, Religion, and Thought

Even in the harshest environments, early humans expressed themselves. Cave paintings in places like Lascaux, France or Bhimbetka, India show animals, hunts, and rituals — evidence of imagination and culture.

There were burial sites with grave goods, suggesting early belief in an afterlife or spiritual realm. The first “religions” may have centered around nature, ancestors, fertility, and the unknown forces of life.

The Neolithic Revolution: When Societies Changed Forever

Around 10,000 years ago, a dramatic shift occurred: the Neolithic Revolution. Humans began farming plants and domesticating animals. This changed everything.

• People settled down permanently, forming villages.

• Food surpluses allowed populations to grow.

• Social structures and roles became more defined.

• Pottery, weaving, and permanent homes emerged.

These were the seeds of modern civilization — planted by people who once roamed with nothing but stone tools and sharp minds.

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What Can We Learn From Prehistoric Societies Today?

Despite the enormous gap in time, prehistoric societies remind us of some timeless truths:

• Community matters. Early humans survived by relying on one another.

• Adaptability is key. Whether facing ice ages or predators, they constantly innovated.

• Simplicity doesn’t mean inferiority. These people weren’t "less evolved" — they were incredibly skilled and intelligent, just in different ways.

Perhaps most importantly, they remind us that every great story has a beginning, and ours started in the firelight of a cave.

The Anachronistic Diversification

Eighty thousand years ago, there was a family that was traveling somewhere with hope. They were hopeful of the fact that they were going to have a better home. This family was part of our genealogy. They left their African homeland for a better life. This migration helped in diversifying our modern world. After seventy thousand years, we are repaying their work by discriminating against our species in various ways. Because of this inhumane and idiosyncratic practice, we are growing into different communities within our communities.

According to Smithsonian Magazine, it puts our species at a level of dominance. For example, "This great migration brought our species to a position of world dominance that it has never relinquished and signaled the extinction of whatever competitors remained." The competitors were Neanderthals and small pockets of Homo erectus. We should learn about migration because of the fact that it is the story of humankind.

Around 870,000 years ago (the Paleolithic era), the temperatures dropped, and North Africa and eastern Europe became drier than before. Because of this drastic change in the temperature, large herbivores moved to southern European refuges, with early humans following them. The main reasons that made them move were climate change and low food availability. And bipedalism helped in moving and losing their fur. Prehistoric climate change was caused by increased oxygen. That might have reacted with the potent greenhouse gas methane. According to Science Daily, greenhouse gases were the main driver of climate change for a long time. For example, "Greenhouse gases were the main driver of climate throughout the warmest period of the past 66 million years, providing insight into the drivers behind long-term climate change."

They were also nomadic, this was a period of human history that 'popularized' the use of stones. The tools that helped trace their journey are fossils, artifacts, DNA, and languages. Researchers use fossils to gather information for sketching out their travel routes. And archaeologists use artifacts to indicate their presence in those regions. Anthropologists collect DNA samples from different ethnic groups. After that, they count the genetic differences caused by mutations in certain sections of the genome. Groups that are more closely related will have fewer genetic differences, which implies they split off more recently from each other. After the origins of human origins intensified in the 20th century, two main theories were put on the table. Cave paintings also helped in this. The first one, known as the multi-regional hypothesis, suggested that species of Homo sapiens dispersed throughout the globe. And modern humans emerged from those people. The other one, the out-of-Africa theory, said that modern humans evolved in Africa for thousands of years before they spread into other parts of the world. These theories have a similar thing between them; they both explain their long journey.

We had a specific migration pattern. We moved from different parts of Africa (we were part of the Southeastern part of Africa) to other continents. We traveled in groups. Specifically, it happened 200,000 to 130,000 years ago. Then, we moved to the southern parts of Asia. Gradually, we occupied other regions of this continent. According to Wikipedia, they went through mountains and other difficult physiographic features to go to Eurasia. For example, "They entered Eurasia by the Zagros Mountains (near present-day Iran and eastern Turkey) around 50,000 years ago, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and another migrating north to the steppes of Central Asia." This happened 90,000 to 55,000 years ago. After that, we moved to the western parts of Europe. This happened 55,000 to 30,000 years ago. Europeans got their features with the help of gene mutations. After this, they moved to other parts of Europe, North America, and South America. This happened 30,000 to 10,000 years ago. After that, they moved to other parts of the world.

In conclusion, our ancestors diversified our world. As we can see, our ancestors had been through a lot. They helped in making us the dominant species, and we are experiencing the effects of it now. The knowledge of our ancestors helps us understand our genealogy and solve biological problems. We are discriminating our species into subgroups. We have to stop this; we can do this by understanding the fact that we are all Africans.

JOBS THAT HELP US TRACE OUR TRAVEL

Anthropologist

An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology, and philosophical anthropology study the norms and values of societies.

Archaeologists

Archaeologists study past human activity by excavating, dating, and interpreting objects and sites of historical interest. They implement excavation projects, informally known as digs, preserve archaeological remains, and collect data that informs their understanding of the past.

Geneticist

A geneticist is a scientist who studies genes, including how they are inherited, mutated, activated, or inactivated. They often study the role that genes play in disease and health.

The Evolution of our Dietary Options

Approximately 12,000 years ago, we were all fighting for our lives. We had to hunt our food; it was the subsistence strategy our ancestors used. This was our only way of getting food; agriculture was created 10,000 years ago. It was pretty recent, compared to this lifestyle. In our modern times, we can get food with the help of a button. From foragers to shopping carts, it is a good progression of our lifestyle. It is not a bad thing that we have easier access to food; it's just that we are taking advantage of it to some extent. Because of the overabundant supply of internet resources, it might be affecting our health. There are some researchers who say that we need to follow the same diet plan as our ancestors.

Some studies show that current foraging societies make their choices on food economically, driven. When it comes to gathering food, humans like to maximize their gains and minimize their costs. Our ancestors did this by hunting large animals. We are like them in this way. If we want to eat junk food, we could go to the grocery store. They could not do that because there was a low supply of sugary things. So, items like bone marrow and oil-rich nuts and seeds were a hard find. They were heavily processed, but our ancestors tried to get them. They wanted it because of the fact that they taste good. We are making the same mistakes our ancestors did. We are focusing on sugary. After the Great Migration, there was an imbalance of food. Because of this, our ancestors broadened their diet. The imbalance was caused by people eating large animals.

Researchers argue that the Stone Age diet fits our genetic makeup. Most of the prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies got their nutrients from meat. According to National Geographic Magazine, it helped in improving our brain size. We have a similar diet to our ancestors; they had a lot of grains. We are doing the same thing. We are also alike in a way, this is the case because of our determination.

Our diet changed evolution; we had a smaller gut size combined with a switch to a high-calorie diet, and the introduction of cooking helped our brain grow. Changes in the human diet have guided the evolution of our metabolism. This was proven with the help of the omega-3 pathway shown (fatty acid). It also changed certain genetic traits. Diets can influence gene expression. According to PubMed, it might change hormonal signaling. For example, "Metabolites of vitamins A and D, fatty acids, some sterols, and zinc are among the nutrients that influence transcription directly. Components of dietary fiber may influence gene expression indirectly through changes in hormonal signaling, mechanical stimuli, and metabolites produced by the intestinal microflora."

As you can see, our diets went from carnivores to a broadened spectrum of food. This information can help us in changing our dietary options. If we eat food that corresponds to our body, we will be healthier. We should learn to adapt to different situations. It would change our lives. Just like our human ancestors.

Key Questions

1). Why did Paleolithic people begin migrating to new areas about 100000 years ago?

It was during the Paleolithic Era that humans populated all of the continents of the Earth (except Antarctica). These migrations were not because people wanted to explore. These migrations were because people needed natural resources and were nomadic. After about 70,000 years, people were everywhere.

2). How did humans spread across the world?

The so-called "recent dispersal" of modern humans took place after beginning about 70–50,000 years ago. It is this migration wave that led to the lasting spread of modern humans throughout the world. ... Other research supports a migration out of Africa between about 65,000 and 50,000 years ago.

3). What was the last continent to which early humans migrated?

Between 70,000 and 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens began migrating from the African continent and populating parts of Europe and Asia. They reached the Australian continent in canoes sometime between 35,000 and 65,000 years ago. So, Australia was the last continent.

"If you look at Paleolithic cave paintings, you see how people were depicted inside nature, not outside it. It was a kind of dream time. That's what I'm exploring."

-- Gregory Colbert (Canadian filmmaker)

Prehistoric societies: The Journey

Society, the word that helps us contemplate our beliefs and despise them at the same time. In our society, the internet and capitalist ideals dominate our lives. This is obvious; we took centuries to come to this state. We should credit our ancestors. We went from foraging to working on a computer. Because of their contributions to humans, we are living a stress-free life. When I talk about a 'stress-free life', I'm talking about various appliances that help us get what we want. We can credit them by understanding prehistoric societies. It helps us in getting an understanding of the ancient progression of life and the evolution of ancient ecosystems developed in response to an ever-changing Earth.

As you can see, one of the natural traits we have is adaptation. That helped us to become the dominant species. This could be the case because of the fact that we were hunter-gatherer societies. Because of this, we were nomadic. We were foragers. This meant that we would search for food in large provisions. These societies were filled with cultures that enabled us to get food. They got their food by hunting. There are some modern foraging societies, but there are not a lot. For example, the Aeta people and the Batek people. This is an example of collective learning. Because of the fact that we had to communicate through various media to get our food. According to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, they hunted large animals, flora, and fauna. For example, "The exact types of food hunter-gatherers consumed varied depending on the landscape and its resident flora and fauna. Whereas some might specialize in hunting the impressive prehistoric megafauna such as the megaceros or giant elk, woolly mammoths, and woolly rhinoceros, others might focus on trapping small game or on fishing." Even though they hunted, they did scavenge to a certain degree. The main philosophical idea that dominated these societies is "The bigger the animal, the better."

We were extremely dependent on nature for various things. We had to depend on caves and overhanging cliffs. In the Middle Paleolithic age, designated areas were apparent. As we harnessed the power of fire, hearths began to appear in places. We used fire as a catalyst; it was used for protection. It also enabled us to hunt for longer hours. These caves helped us to get an insight into their life. An example of this is the Bolombos caves. There were fish remains, which meant we were fishermen. It was inhabited by humans between about 95,000 and 55,000 years ago. In the Upper Paleolithic age, we had the ability to build our shelters.

As I said before, cave paintings depicted their life. This means that cave paintings must have depicted their culture. This shows that our ancestors were not people who ate meat all the time. There is archaeological evidence that states that Neanderthals had a network of various religious beliefs. In modern-day northeastern Iraq, there is evidence that states that they covered a person's body in flowers. this means that they had a deep sense of spirituality.

As the human population increased, the density of human groups also increased. Because of the fact that we lived in groups, there was a competitive spirit among our ancestors. They had to look for large areas. Anthropologists were able to draw these conclusions with the help of a modern foraging community's lifestyle. We could look at their lifestyle and indicate a prehistoric person's life because of the fact that they had similar living conditions. Based on their experience, hunter-gatherer societies that have 500 members have 25 members in each tribe or group. They got this data with the help of theoretical mathematical models of the group process.

If we want to get productive work done in a particular group project, we have to divide our work. That is what our ancestors did; they had to stake out territory. They had to do that because of our dependence on nature. There were temporary settlements within small groups, often near bodies of water. Labor was divided among others along gender lines. Women do much of the gathering, cooking, and child-rearing, and men do much of the hunting. However, in the Middle Paleolithic era, the work was divided equally.

Our modern societies were derived from these prehistoric societies. We can see some similarities in our life and their life. We have the same ability to adapt, we still expect women to do something and men to do something else, and we have religious beliefs. These flaws and perfections make us human. We can make these flaws into perfections by understanding our society. We have to work together to do this.

The Progression of Prehistoric Technologies

When we think about technology, we imagine computer screens and artificial intelligence. The actual definition of technology is the mechanical application of scientific knowledge. This can help us make our lives easier. Our ancestors used stones to create their technology. They used it to create spears, it helped them hunt. They also used it for other things.

In those days, tools had to be functional in their direct environment. They were made with the help of natural resources. In the Middle Palaeolithic age, there were fine-tuned flake tools. This included scrapers, points, and backed knives. These tools were made by the early precursors to Homo sapiens and Neanderthals.

In Africa, what we call the Acheulean (c. 1,7 million years ago to c. 250,000 years ago) had begun to evolve. It saw the development of tools like hand axes. A huge proliferation then occurred in the Late Palaeolithic, where blade tools were created alongside bone and antler artifacts, and even such technological feats as spear throwers and bows, and arrows began to appear.

As you can see, technology does not need a pixelated screen to be called technology. Technology can help a person in various ways. If we want to make the future better, we should look at it in a scientific way.

The Importance of Human Ancestry

Humans are a curious species; we want to find out about everything. This is a trait that was gained by years of evolution. There are many traits that we inherited with the help of our ancestors. The understanding of this can help us solve biological problems that impact our lives. This knowledge can help us control hereditary diseases. Researchers study the evolutionary histories of the disease-causing genes. Our ancestry is a lot more complicated than you think.

Our species came into existence approximately 200,000 to 250,000 years ago, foraging for generations in East Africa. These humans had limited genetic diversity. This was the case because of the small population. The studies of human mitochondrial DNA stated that the ancestry of every human alive today goes back to a single common human ancestor. Over the next 100,000 years, we spread to other parts of the world.

Eventually, we got adapted to the cold weather that was thrown at us. We were not the only people who did this. Neanderthals were in those regions. They interbred with them. In fact, for anyone outside of Africa of Eurasian descent, about 1.5 to 2% of their DNA is of Neanderthal origin. During this time, we migrated to the Americas. The dominant theory is that humans simply walked from Asia to the Americas along the Bering Strait.

After humans left Africa, there was a small population that ballooned from all the new resources the rest of the world had to offer. Basically, we were not genetically diverse at the time we left Africa. As we all know, we have different melanin levels. Gene mutations and environmental conditions caused this. According to Crash course, it took years for this to happen. For example, "Specific genes that lead to depigmentation only became active when humans entered regions where they weren’t getting enough sun and thus not as much vitamin D. But even this change took thousands upon thousands of years." This information was gathered in the second half of the

We have been looking for our origin story for many years. There are a lot of theories that justify our existence. As we learn this, we learn that diversity is an important thing. It is part of us. This helps us understand that we are connected.

Modern and Prehistoric Jobs

JOBS THAT HELP US TRACE OUR TRAVEL

Anthropologist

An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology, and philosophical anthropology study the norms and values of societies.

Archaeologists

Archaeologists study past human activity by excavating, dating, and interpreting objects and sites of historical interest. They implement excavation projects, informally known as digs, preserve archaeological remains, and collect data that informs their understanding of the past.

PREHISTORIC JOBS

• Foragers

• Hunters

• Fishing people

• Toolmakers

• Scavengers

Key Questions

1). What do prehistoric cave paintings and ancient graffiti represent? First of all, cave paintings are a type of symbolic language. According to the analysis of certain cave paintings, they were not simply depictions of wild animals (as previously thought) but instead represented star constellations in the night sky. They also represent early forms of communication.

2). What are the sources of prehistory? The main source of information for prehistory is archaeology (a branch of anthropology), but some scholars are beginning to make more use of evidence from the natural resources, anthropologists (study prehistoric societies), and social studies.

3). How old are modern humans? Modern humans originated in Africa within the past 200,000 years and evolved from their most likely recent common ancestor, Homo erectus, which means 'upright man' in Latin. Homo erectus is an extinct species of human that lived between 1.9 million and 135,000 years ago.

How do archaeologists determine the techniques used by prehistoric people to create tools?

Archaeologists employ a multifaceted approach to understand prehistoric tool-making techniques. First, they meticulously study the morphological or physical features of unearthed stone tools, as specialists can often surmise the flaking or working methods by observing the surface. Second, experimental archaeology plays a crucial role; anthropologists conduct experiments to replicate ancient tools, with some experts creating products nearly indistinguishable from original artifacts. Lastly, observation of contemporary communities, such as those in Papua New Guinea, who still practice traditional stone tool making, provides invaluable insights into the techniques and technologies employed by their prehistoric ancestors.

What are the key periods of the Stone Age, and what distinguishes their tool technologies?

The Stone Age is broadly divided into three major periods:

• Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): This longest period is characterized by the earliest use of stone tools, evolving from simple pebble tools to more refined forms. The Lower Palaeolithic saw techniques like Block-on-Block (Anvil), Stone Hammer (Direct Percussion), and Cylinder Hammer. The Middle Palaeolithic introduced more advanced flake tool techniques like Clactonian and Levalloisean, focusing on prepared cores. The Upper Palaeolithic further advanced with the Blade Technique, producing thin, elongated blades, often combined with punching or backing.

• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): This transitional period is defined by the development of much smaller stone tools known as microliths. The primary technique used was pressure flaking, which allowed for the removal of very small, thin flakes, and the fluting technique for micro blades. These tools were often hafted to create composite tools.

• Neolithic (New Stone Age): This period marks a "cultural revolution" with the introduction of agriculture and settled communities. The dominant tool-making technique was grinding and polishing, which involved initially trimming and flaking, then pecking to blunt rough edges, followed by grinding with abrasives, and finally polishing to achieve a smooth, sharp surface.

Beyond stone tools, what other significant technologies emerged in prehistory?

While stone tools are the most enduring evidence of prehistoric technology, ceramic technology emerged as a significant development, primarily flourishing in the Neolithic period and beyond. This involved several steps:

• Clay Preparation: Clay, often collected from riverbanks or lakes due to its rich mineral content and plasticity, was cleaned of impurities, mixed with water, and kneaded. Tempering materials like husks or sand were sometimes added to reduce stickiness.

• Shaping Clay: Pots were shaped either by hand (coil-building method, where long clay coils are layered and smoothed, or mould method, using a basket or old pot as a form) or by wheel (where prepared clay is centered on a rotating wheel and shaped by hand). Wheel-made pottery allowed for thinner, more varied forms.

• Surface Treatment: After initial shaping and partial drying, vessels could be burnished (polished to a glossy finish) or slipped (dipped in a clay and color solution to add color and seal pores). Decorative elements like impressions or incised designs were also added.

• Firing: This crucial step transformed clay into durable pottery. Early firing was done in open hearths or pit fires, with later periods seeing the development of sophisticated kilns. Proper ventilation during firing was essential for uniform texture and color.

How did tool types and technologies evolve across the Palaeolithic periods?

The Palaeolithic period witnessed a significant evolution in tool types and manufacturing techniques, reflecting increasing skill and adaptation:

• Lower Palaeolithic: This period is characterized by large, massive tools like Pebble Tools (choppers and choppings, often unifacially or bifacially flaked using the block-on-block technique) and Bifaces/Handaxes (bifacially flaked core tools with a thick butt and pointed working end, evolving from crude Chellian-Abbevillian types made with stone hammers to more symmetrical Acheulian forms crafted with cylindrical hammers). Cleavers, heavy cutting tools with a broad transverse edge, also appeared.

• Middle Palaeolithic: Tools became smaller, with an emphasis shifting from core tools to flakes. Scrapers (made on medium-sized flakes with retouched edges for scraping tasks) and Points (triangular-shaped tools on flakes, often with secondary retouching for a pointed end) are characteristic. Techniques like Clactonian (massive flakes with prominent bulbs of percussion) and Levalloisean (prepared cores for controlled flake removal) signify this period.

• Upper Palaeolithic: This era saw the emergence of modern humans and specialized tools, particularly the Blade Technique, which produced uniformly thin, elongated, parallel-sided flakes. Other characteristic tools include Borers/Awls (for piercing), Burins/Gravers (chisel-edged tools for engraving), and a variety of Bone Tools (such as needles, fish hooks, harpoons, and spear throwers), indicating diversification in raw materials and function.

What are Microliths, and why were they significant in the Mesolithic period?

Microliths are exceptionally small stone tools, typically less than 3cm in length, made on tiny blades (bladelets) using punch and pressure flaking techniques. They are a defining characteristic of the Mesolithic period, although they appeared in small quantities during the Upper Palaeolithic.

Their significance lies in several aspects:

• Efficiency and Resource Economy: They were easier and quicker to manufacture than larger Palaeolithic tools, and they economized on raw material.

• Hafting and Composite Tools: Microliths were not used individually but were designed to be hafted onto wooden or bone shafts in rows to create more effective "composite tools." This innovation allowed for specialized tools like sickles for harvesting or various hunting weapons.

• Adaptation to Environment: As the environment changed with the end of the last ice age, Mesolithic people became highly specialized hunter-gatherers, and microliths were well-suited for fast game hunting and processing diverse resources in varied ecological niches.

How did the Neolithic period represent a "cultural revolution" beyond just new tool types?

The Neolithic period is often referred to as a "cultural revolution" by scholars like V. Gordon Childe due to profound changes that went far beyond mere tool types:

• Shift from Food Gathering to Food Production: This was the most revolutionary change, as humans transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers who cultivated plants and domesticated animals.

• Permanent Settlements and Village Development: Regular food supply led to the establishment of settled communities near agricultural fields, fostering the growth of villages and eventually larger settlements.

• Increased Population and Community Life: Stable food sources supported larger populations and the development of more complex community structures.

• Specialization of Craft and Division of Labor: With greater food security, individuals could specialize in crafts other than just tool-making, leading to a division of labor.

• Concept of Property: The investment in land and crops likely led to the development of property ownership.

• New Technologies: Besides ground and polished stone tools, handmade pottery became regular, providing containers for storage and cooking. Weaving also emerged as a byproduct of agriculture and animal husbandry, utilizing fibers like flax and wool.

• Artistic and Social Changes: Naturalistic art became less common, replaced by stylized designs on pottery. The presence of spindle whorls testifies to spinning practices.

What defines the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, and how did they impact human societies?

The Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages represent crucial transitional periods characterized by the advent and increasing use of metals, marking a departure from the sole reliance on stone tools:

• Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age): This period saw the early appearance of copper metallurgy alongside the continued widespread use of stone tools. It is considered a transitional stage between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. In India, Chalcolithic cultures were widespread, characterized by a common economy (agriculture, stock raising, hunting, fishing) and technology, but with distinct painted ceramic industries across geographical zones. Houses were typically made of wattle-and-daub, and artifacts included copper tools (knives, spearheads, arrowheads), bone tools, and microliths.

• Bronze Age: This age is defined by the widespread and systematic use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. Mastering bronze metallurgy was a significant technological leap. This period often coincides with the emergence of early civilizations, as bronze tools and weapons became more readily available. The invention of writing also largely coincides with the early Bronze Age, providing direct written accounts for the first time. The superior hardness and versatility of bronze over stone led to further societal advancements and larger-scale production.

How did the Iron Age transform human societies, particularly in regions like India?

The Iron Age signifies a period where iron technology became prominent, profoundly transforming human societies:

• Ubiquitous Metal Use: Iron's abundance and hardness, once its technology was mastered, made iron tools, weapons, and vessels accessible to common people, gradually replacing stone tools entirely.

• Agricultural Expansion: In regions like India, iron tools, particularly iron-headed hoes and ploughs, enabled the clearing and colonization of previously dense monsoonal forests in areas like the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh plains. This led to more effective and extensive tilling of soil, yielding surplus food.

• Second Urbanization and State Formation: The agricultural surplus facilitated social stratification and the formation of states. In India, this led to a "second urbanization" in the Gangetic plains, marked by the emergence of cities and early political entities known as Mahajanapadas (e.g., Magadhan Empire).

• Cultural and Religious Flourishing: This period in India also saw the rise of major religious movements like Buddhism and Jainism, as well as the appearance of the Brahmi script for writing after a long gap since the Indus Valley Civilization.

• Megalithic Cultures (South India): In South India, iron technology is strongly associated with megalithic cultures, characterized by large stone structures used for funeral or ceremonial purposes, along with distinctive black and red ware pottery and a range of iron objects.

I. Understanding Prehistoric Technology

The study of prehistoric technology is crucial for understanding human biological and cultural evolution. It reveals how early humans augmented their physical capabilities and adapted to their environment through tool manufacturing.

A. Identification of Techniques: Archaeologists and anthropologists identify prehistoric tool-making techniques through three primary methods:

1. Study of Stone Tools: Specialists analyze morphological features of tools to infer manufacturing processes. "When we look at a tool minutely at times it is possible to see how it must have been flaked or worked upon."

2. Imitation (Experimental Archaeology): Anthropologists conduct experiments to replicate tool production. "Some such experimenters are so expert that their products can hardly be differentiated from the century-old stone tools."

3. Observation of Living Communities: Studying contemporary communities that still practice stone tool making (e.g., Papua New Guinea) provides insights.

B. Key Concepts in Stone Tool Technology:

• Core: The main stone from which a tool is made, reduced by successive flaking. Core tools, like choppers and handaxes, often retain parts of the original stone surface.

• Flake: A chip of rock detached from a core. Flakes can be tools themselves (flake tools, like scrapers and points) or byproducts of core reduction.

• Flaking: The process of removing flakes from a core.

• Percussion: Hitting one stone against another.

• Pressure: Applying sustained pressure of one stone against another.

• Primary Flaking: Initial, large flake removal for shaping.

• Secondary Flaking: Smaller flake removal for refining and sharpening.

• Controlled Flaking: Managing blow force by changing direction or hammer type (e.g., bone hammer instead of stone).

• Hammer: The object used to strike the core (stone, bone, or wood).

• Striking Platform: A flattened surface on the core where the hammer strikes to detach a flake.

C. Evolution of Stone Tool Technology by Period:

1. Palaeolithic Stone Tool Technology (Old Stone Age):

• Lower Palaeolithic:Block-on-Block/Anvil Technique: Striking a core against a fixed large stone. Produces "large and massive" flakes with pronounced positive bulbs of percussion. Used for choppers.

• Stone Hammer/Direct Percussion: Holding a core in one hand and striking with a stone hammer. Leads to prominent bulbs of percussion and zigzag cutting edges (e.g., Abbevillian handaxes).

• Cylinder Hammer/Hollow Hammer Technique: Using a bone or wooden hammer, resulting in "shallow and elongated flake scars." Associated with refined Acheulian handaxes.

• Middle Palaeolithic:Clactonian Technique: Making tools on large, massive flakes removed by direct hammer or anvil technique. Flakes are "large and massive," with prominent bulbs and unflaked striking platforms at a 100-120° angle. Used for large scrapers and 'U'/'V' shaped cleavers.

• Levalloisean Technique: An "advanced and skilful method" where the tool (flake) is "prepared in advance on the core." Involves three steps: preparing the core, preparing the striking platform, and removing the flake with a single blow. Produces thin, small flakes with small, flat bulbs and 90° striking platforms. The resultant core is called a "tortoise core."

• Upper Palaeolithic:Blade Technique: Producing "uniformly thin, elongated and parallel-sided flakes commonly known as blades." Involves preparing a cylindrical core and striking it to remove long, sharp blades.

• Punching Technique: Using an intermediate material (punch) between the hammer and the core to control flaking.

• Backing/Blunting Technique: Retouching one border of a blade to make it blunt for gripping.

1. Mesolithic Stone Tool Technology (Middle Stone Age):

• Characterized by microliths (very small tools).

• Pressure Flaking: A new technique where pressure (rather than striking) is applied to remove "very small" flakes. Requires specific rock types.

• Fluting Technique: Applied to make micro blades by repeated pressure removal of elongated flakes, leading to flutes on the core.

1. Neolithic Stone Tool Technology (New Stone Age):

• Grinding and Polishing Technique: Involves several steps:

• Flaking: Initial shaping.

• Pecking: Blunting rough edges.

• Grinding: Smoothing and sharpening using abrasives (sand and water) against a hard surface.

• Polishing: Acquiring sheen, either intentionally or through use. Used for tools like celts (axes and adzes).

D. Ceramic Technology (Neolithic and Post-Neolithic): Ceramic technology began in the Neolithic period and involves:

1. Clay Preparation: Cleaning clay of impurities, mixing with water, kneading to plastic consistency, sometimes adding tempering materials (husks, sand) to reduce stickiness.

• Shaping Clay:Handmade Pottery:Coil-building method: Arranging clay in long coils to form a basic shape, then beating and polishing.

• Mould method: Using a basket or old pot as a mould, then refining walls.

• Wheel-made Pottery: Placing clay on a rotating wheel to shape it. Can produce thinner, more varied pots.

• Burnishing: Polishing the surface for a glossy feature.

• Slipping: Dipping the pot in a clay and color solution to color and close pores.

1. Firing: Heating the pots to produce irreversible changes.

• Open hearth firing: Early method, requiring good ventilation for uniform texture and red color.

• Kilns: Used in later periods for mass production. Insufficient air results in blotchy, ill-fired pottery.

1. Decoration and Painting: Applying designs (geometric, naturalistic) or incisions before or after firing.

II. Prehistoric Typology

Typology involves classifying tools into "types" to facilitate analysis and understand prehistoric cultural development, diffusion, contact, and migration.

A. Key Concepts in Typology:

• Artifacts: "Humanly manufactured or modified objects," including tools from various materials.

• Assemblage: "A set of artifacts... recovered from a specific archaeological context."

• Industry: "Distinct groups of artifacts from different assemblages" characterized by particular technology or morphology.

• Tradition: "A set of industries that are technologically or aesthetically similar enough to imply underlying cultural or historical connection."

B. Classification of Stone Tools by Period:

1. Palaeolithic Stone Tools:

• Lower Palaeolithic:Pebble Tools: Made on pebbles by block-on-block technique (e.g., choppers, choppings). "Big and massive." Used for chopping, scraping, clearing.

• Biface/Handaxe (Mode II): "Bifacially flaked core tools, with thick and heavy butt end and thin tapering pointed working end." Multifunctional (digging, cutting, splitting).

• Chellian-Abbevillian Handaxe: Crude, irregular, zig-zag working edge, likely stone hammer technique.

• Acheulian Handaxe: Symmetrical, thin flakes removed from both surfaces, biconvex cross-section, likely cylindrical hammer. Subtypes: Peariform, Ovate, Cordiform, Lanceolate.

• Micoquian Handaxe: Small, triangular, thin elongated working ends, finely retouched, follow Acheulian types.

• Cleaver: "A cutting or cleaving tool with a broad cutting edge," prototype of the iron axe. Found with middle Acheulian handaxes.

• Middle Palaeolithic: Tools become "much smaller." Extensive use of flakes.

• Scrapers: "Smaller tools made on medium-sized flakes," manipulated by fingers. Used for scraping barks, dressing wood/bamboo, animal skins. Varieties based on shape and edge: Side scraper, End scraper, Round scraper, Concave/Hollow scraper, Convex scraper, Concavo-convex scraper, Side-cum-end scraper.

• Points: Made on medium-sized flakes, with two converging borders forming a point. Subtypes: Single shouldered point, Double shouldered point (tanged points).

• Upper Palaeolithic (Mode IV): Characterized by "blade and burin industries." Also made tools on bone, antler, ivory.

• Knife Blades/Blades: "Thin, long, parallel sided flakes." Can be retouched or "backed/blunted along one border."

• Borer or Awl: Tools with a "thick projecting point" for boring holes.

• Burin or Gravers: Blade with "margins sliced obliquely at one end so that they meet to form a narrow chisel edge." Used for engraving on stone, bone, rock shelters.

• Bone Tools: Appeared in Europe. Varieties: Baton-de-commandement (antler with holes), Fish Hooks, Harpoons (with/without barbs), Needles, Bone Lance points, Spear Thrower.

1. Mesolithic Tools (Mode V):

• Microliths: "Extremely tiny tools," reflecting a focus on fast game hunting and widespread hafting (composite tools). Economical in raw material and time to manufacture.

• Geometric Microliths: Lunates (half-moon shaped with blunted arc), Triangles, Trapezes, Trapezoids, Transverse arrowheads.

• Non-geometric Microliths: Backed blades, Obliquely blunted blades (pen knife blades), Truncated blades, Tranchets, Hollow based points.

1. Neolithic Tools:

• "More durable" tools, made by "pecking, grinding and polishing" igneous rocks. "Neolithic industry is referred to as pecked and ground stone tool industry."

• Celts (Axes and Adzes): Axes are triangular with a broad cutting edge, usually ground and polished. Adzes are thinner, triangular, with one flat and one convex surface, blade at right angles to the handle.

• Chisels: Narrow, elongated celts with ground edges, prototypes of metal chisels.

• Wedges: Small, triangular/quadrilateral pieces with wedge-shaped ground edge, used for splitting wood.

• Grinding or Rubbing stones: Domestic implements for grinding/pounding grains.

• Saddle Querns or Mills stones: Larger boulders for grinding grains.

• Mace heads or Ring stones: Circular stones with central holes, possibly for digging sticks or maces.

• Fabricators or Hammer stones: Round/cylindrical stones for manufacturing blade tools and dressing ground tools.

C. Ceramic Types (Post-Neolithic Flourishing): Classified by manufacturing method, surface treatment, firing, and decoration.

• Handmade vs. Wheel-made Pottery: Coil-building and mould methods for handmade; potter's wheel for wheel-made.

• Surface Treatment: Burnishing (polishing) or slipping (dipping in clay solution).

• Firing: Open fires/pit-fires (Neolithic) to sophisticated kilns (later periods).

• Examples: Malwa ware (buff/cream slip, painted patterns), Painted Grey Ware (PGW - fine grey, black painted), Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP - glossy, mirror effect, black/steel blue).

III. Cultural Chronology

A. Periodization of Prehistory: Prehistory is the period "before written records were available." The "Three-Age System" (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age), refined by C.J. Thomsen and J.J.A. Worsaae, classifies human prehistory based on "predominant tool-making technologies and the type of raw materials used." John Lubbock further divided the Stone Age into Palaeolithic and Neolithic, with Lartet subdividing Palaeolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper.

B. The Stone Age:

• Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): "Lasted roughly 3.4 million years," beginning with the "use of stone tools."

• Lower Palaeolithic: Predates Homo sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis and Homo erectus (2.5 million years ago). Characterized by pebble tools, handaxes, and cleavers (Oldowan, Acheulean, Clactonian cultures).

• Oldowan Culture: Earliest stone tools (choppers, chopping tools) found in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), dating back to ~1.9 to 1.6 million years ago. Primarily associated with Homo habilis.

• Acheulean Culture: Associated with Homo erectus (Africa, Europe, parts of Asia). Characterized by handaxes, cleavers, scrapers. Dates back to ~1.76 million years ago.

• Clactonian Culture: Flake tool industry, with large, crude flakes, associated with Homo erectus.

• Middle Palaeolithic: Emergence of early Homo sapiens (Neanderthals in Europe/Near East) around 300,000 years ago. Marked by "increasingly sophisticated tools" (e.g., Mousterian industry, based on Levallois technique).

• Upper Palaeolithic: Appearance of Homo sapiens sapiens around 50,000 years ago, lasting until 10,000 years ago. Characterized by "diversified and specialised tools on blades," extensive use of bone/ivory/antler, and "Palaeolithic art." Cultures include Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian in Europe.

• Lifestyle: Throughout the Palaeolithic, humans were "nomadic hunter-gatherers," "food gatherer depending on the collection of wild fruits, tubers and nuts, hunting of wild animals and birds, and fishing."

• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Transitional period between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, developing in the Holocene epoch (10,000 BP). Characterized by "small flint tools known as microliths" and "composite tools." People became "species specific hunters and gatherers." Mesolithic phases in Europe: Azilian, Tardenoisean, Maglemosean, Asturian, Campignian.

• Neolithic (New Stone Age): "Cultural revolution" (V. Gordon Childe) marking a shift "from food gathering to producing" (agriculture and domestication). Began ~10,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent. Key changes:

• Permanent settlements, development of villages.

• Regular food supply, increased population.

• Growth in craft specialization, division of labor.

• Development of property concepts, potential for conflict.

• Utilization of hides, wool, manure; animals for transportation.

• New technologies: handmade pottery (later wheel-made), "polished or ground stone tools," weaving (sickle blades, grinding stones, spindle whorls).

C. The Chalcolithic / Bronze Age:

• Chalcolithic (Copper Age): "Transitional period where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the widespread use of stone tools." Common in India.

• Indian Chalcolithic cultures (e.g., Salvada, Kayatha, Ahar, Malwa, OCP, Jorwe) share a common economy (agriculture, stock raising, hunting/fishing) and technology (copper, stone, bone tools) but differ in painted ceramic industries. Houses were wattle-and-daub, pottery wheel-made.

• Bronze Age: Use of "bronze an alloy of copper and tin," marking "early civilizations." Earliest period with "direct written accounts."

D. The Iron Age:

• Advent of iron technology, with "iron implements as tools and weapons" becoming prominent. Iron's hardness and abundance led to its widespread use, gradually replacing stone tools.

• In India, associated with late prehistoric/early historic periods.

• Painted Grey Ware (PGW): Fine grey pottery, black painted designs. Rural cultures, agriculturists, cattle breeding. C-14 dates: 1000-600 BC.

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): Glossy, mirror-effect black pottery. Evolved from PGW, associated with urban centers. C-14 dates: 600-100 BC.

• Iron technology led to "second urbanization in India" in the Gangetic plains, clearing of forests, and the emergence of "Mahajanapadas" (6th century BCE). Writing (Brahmi script) reappeared.

• Megalithic Culture (South India): Distinguished by "monuments built by large stone structures used for funeral or other ceremonies." Associated with black and red ware pottery and iron objects. C-14 dates: 1000 BC - 1 BC.

• Chambered Graves: Stone chambers for burial (Passage chamber tomb, Port hole chamber/cist, Cist with slab circle, Rock-cut monuments, Topikal, Kudaikal, Multiple hood stone).

• Unchambered Graves: Pit burial, Menhirs (single standing monoliths), Cairn circles, Terracotta Sarcophagus Burial.

• Non-Sepulchral Megaliths: For ceremonial purposes (Menhirs, Stone Alignments).

IV. Earliest Evidences of Culture in the World

Culture is defined as the "extra corporal behaviour of man," enabled by human biological features like bipedalism, enlarged brain, free hands, and language. The "earliest evidence of culture is found in the form of stone tools."

A. Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania, East Africa):

• Site: Famous for Louis S.B. Leakey's discoveries. Located in the Great Rift Valley, exposed geological layers from Tertiary to Quaternary periods.

• Geological Features: Seven successive formations (Bed I to Bed VII), with Bed I (1.85 to 1.7 Myrs) yielding earliest tools and faunal remains.

• Palaeoecology: Environment evolved from forested to mosaic open woodland, indicating a shift to drier conditions.

• Oldowan Culture (Mode 1): Associated with Homo habilis and Homo erectus (Homo ergaster). "Simple pebble tools, produced with the use of percussion, stone hammer or block on block technique." Mostly "choppers and chopping tools." Classified into Heavy duty, Light duty, Utilized pieces, and Debitages.

• Classic Oldowan: Bed I and lower Bed II (1.9-1.6 Myrs ago). Tools made by detaching flakes from pebble cores.

• Developed Oldowan: Around 1.6 Myrs ago, includes "protohandaxes."

• Subsistence: Oldowan hominids likely lived mainly by collecting fruits and other vegetable food. They probably scavenged upon medium to large game."

B. Ubeidiya (Israel, Middle East):

• Site: Central Jordan Valley, an extension of the East African Rift Valley.

• Geological Features: "Ubediya Formation" shows alternating limnic (lake/pond) and fluviatile (flowing stream) sediments, indicating alternating wet and dry conditions. Artifacts concentrated in the Fi cycle.

• Palaeoecology: Hominids lived on lake shores with adjoining marshy land, surrounded by savannah grassland and woods. Rich faunal remains (wild boars, elephants, etc.).

• Ubeidiyan Culture (Israel Variant of Oldowan - IVO): Dating to 1.4 million years ago. Tools include "chopping tools, polyhedra and spheroids, picks and trihedra, cores and flakes." "Close similarity with the Oldowan cultural assemblage." Evidence of hippopotamus butchering. Considered a station in Homo erectus’ migration to Eurasia.

C. Dmanisi (Georgia, Europe):

• Site: Southern Caucasus, 85 km southwest of Tbilisi. Famous for Homo erectus remains (five skulls, four mandibles) and early cultural remains. "The only site in Europe belonging to such an early date."

• Geological Features: Deposits (Strata A and B) over Mashavera Basalt, dating from 1.85 to 1.7 Ma (Potassium-Argon method). Stratum A yielded hominid remains, Stratum B yielded stone tools.

• Palaeoecology: Mosaic environment with open grassland and some trees, warm climate, plentiful resources, favorable for habitation.

• Culture: Makers were short-statured hominids (cranial capacity 500-775 cc). Over 1000 artifacts, dominated by flakes, also cores and pebble tools. Tools are "Oldowan type designated to Mode 1 type." Raw materials varied by stratum (tuff, andesite, basalt). Occupied repeatedly for over 80 thousand years. "Importance of Dmanisi lies in understanding of evolution of man and ancient population migration."

D. Attirampakkam (India):

• Site: Northwest of Chennai, on a tributary of the River Kortallaiyar. Discovered by Robert Bruce Foote (1863), extensively reinvestigated by Shanti Pappu.

• Geological Features: Eight depositional strata, confirming alternating gravel and silt beds. Layers 5 to 2 yielded cultural elements (late Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic).

• Chronology: Acheulian horizon dated by cosmic ray exposure method to 1.51 +/- 0.07 MYA, placing Homo erectus presence before 1.07 mya. Corresponds with Olduvai Gorge, Ubeidiya, Dmanisi.

• Palaeoecology: Semi-arid environment with open landscape. Faunal remains suggest wild ox, horse, and deer.

• Culture: Continuous hominid habitation from Acheulian to Late Middle Palaeolithic. Tools made from quartzite. Acheulian toolkits include handaxes (large and small, ovate, pointed), cleavers, trimmed flakes, small flakes, and some cobble tools. Suggests seasonal visits for butchering and plant resources.

E. Isampur (India):

• Site: Hunsgi valley, Karnataka. Discovered and researched by K. Paddayya.

• Geological Features: Cultural levels within thick silt deposits over limestone blocks. Acheulian deposit over limestone, Middle Palaeolithic tools in upper silt layers, indicating continuous occupation.

• Palaeoecology: Congenial environment with a perennial water channel, raw material for tools, and high ground for viewing games. "Home base" for living, tool manufacturing, and food processing. Faunal remains: wild cattle, horse, elephant, deer.

• Culture: Early Acheulian culture, dating between 1.2 and 0.7 mya (from bovid teeth enamel). Seven "chipping centres" identified. Main raw material: limestone (also chert, quartzite). Tool types: "Hand axes, cleavers, knives, scrapers, chopping tools, discoids, perforators." Typo-technology suggests an earlier Acheulian tradition.

V. Practical Analysis of Prehistoric Tools

Practical analysis involves scientific recording, drawing, and description of tools to understand their typology and manufacturing techniques.

A. Necessity of Practical Courses:

• Provides scientific record of findings.

• Enables analysis of tool type and technique.

• Familiarizes the illustrator with the object, aiding insight into flintknapping strategies.

B. Tool Making Raw Material: Common materials: Quartz, Quartzite, Chert/Flint, Chalcedony, Obsidian, Basalt. Selection depends on local availability and desired skill level.

C. Morphological Analysis (Typology):

• Tools classified by shape, size, material form, and working edge.

• "Analytical types" are defined by structure and probable function.

• Tool types show "general size diminution through time and at the same time there is refinement of tool making technology."

D. Technology Principles:

• Lithic Reduction: Striking a stone (core) with a hammer to detach a flake.

• Key features: Flake scar, negative bulb of percussion (on core), positive bulb of percussion (on flake), ripple marks, striking platform, dorsal/ventral surfaces.

• Techniques:Direct Percussion: Block-on-block, Stone hammer, Resolved/Step flaking, Cylinder hammer.

• Indirect Percussion (Punch Technique): Using an intermediate punch.

• Pressure Flaking: Applying pressure for fine, thin blades (e.g., microliths).

• Grinding and Polishing: For smoothing and sharpening (e.g., Neolithic celts), involves chipping, pecking, grinding, and polishing.

• Combination Techniques: Clactonian (large flakes, pronounced bulb, unflaked platform >90°), Levalloisian (prepared core, facetted platform, 90° angle), Fluting (for microblades by pressure flaking).

E. Drawing and Recording:

• Artifact illustration is a "technical representation" to convey shape and "method and order in which the flakes were removed."

• Drawn at 1:1 scale with a scale bar.

• Standard views: Dorsal, ventral, two lateral sides/profiles, striking platform, cross-sections.

• Conventions: Illumination from top-left, specific hatching and symbols for flake scars, ripples, cortex, damage. Microliths often drawn with outlines only due to small size.

• Each tool is described with museum number, locality, preservation state, measurements, shape, raw material, pre-form, dorsal/ventral surface details, cross-section, tool type, probable technique, probable function, and cultural stage.

This comprehensive briefing covers the key aspects of prehistoric cultures as presented in the provided sources, highlighting the interconnectedness of technology, typology, chronological development, and archaeological discovery.

Conclusion: The Roots Beneath Civilization

Modern life — with its technologies, cultures, and conflicts — is built on prehistoric foundations. The people of that time may seem distant, but their spirit, curiosity, and resilience live on in us.

They were not the beginning of humanity, but they were the ones who made us human.