Sanatana Dharma and Japan

Award-Winning Essay of the Wolfers Japan Essay Prize 2025

Japan has long been at the forefront of the ancient nations and a mecca for perspicacious seekers of knowledge, tranquillity and enlightenment: vouchsafed with a superabundance of monticolous vistas for consummate idylls of beatitude; a sui generis, seraphic tradition and culture perpetually enshrined in the heart of the prosperous land; and a copious history of dialogue and exchange which has shaped it into a vibrant crucible where countless paradigms have been inveterately espoused and been woven effortlessly into its ornate, quintessential mosaic of wisdom, spirituality and ethos.

Among the most preeminent of such odysseys of erudition is the esoteric, transcendental journey of Dhyana, which was initiated in the towering peaks of the Himalayas shrouded in mist and crowned with the embrace of the heavens, traversed the bountiful waterways of China as Chan and found its ultimate manifestation in the Land of the Rising Sun as Zen. This sacred emanation of wisdom was not merely a philosophical evolution but an abstruse spiritual metamorphosis, wherein the essence of meditative introspection, self-realisation and inner harmony adapted to the cultural ethos of each land it touched.

From the prodigious Ratnasagara of Nalanda to the sequestered monasteries of Mount Hiei, the principles of Dhyana underwent a symphony of refinements, harmonising with indigenous traditions and metaphysical inquiries idiosyncratic to each civilisation. In this remarkable odyssey, Indian teachings of Sanatana Dharma intertwined with Chinese Daoist spontaneity before flourishing in Japan’s disciplined aesthetic of wabi-sabi and bushidō. It was here that Zen, an embodiment of austerity and direct experience (shinjin), would inscrutably authoritate not just spirituality but also art, martial traditions and would bulwark the very way of life.

As the echoes of Dhyana resonated through the mystical hills, valleys and mountains of India, it flourished within the milieu of Buddhist and Hindu thought, deeply imbricated in the spiritual framework of the subcontinent. The concept of Dhyana, derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhyai,’ meaning ‘to meditate or contemplate,’ was integral to the teachings of the Buddha and of Hinduism, which accentuated heuristic mindfulness and inner tranquillity as the means to transcend suffering and attain enlightenment.

The earliest cenobitic universities, particularly Nalanda and Vikramashila, were the first in the world, “the Oxbridge, the Ivy League, the NASA of the ancient world”[1], and became sanctuaries for the development of theories and concepts that would constitute the intellectual and spiritual landscapes of the world. China’s greatest Buddhist monk, Xuanzang, undertook a 6,000-mile hajj from China to come to Nalanda to learn[2]. He is taken aback by the nine-storied library[3], on schools of Buddhism, the sacred Vedas, logic, Sanskrit grammar, philosophy, medicine, metaphysics, divination, mathematics, astronomy, literature, chemistry and magic[4], “that soared above the mists in the sky”[5], housing nine million manuscripts,[6] while lofty lotus ponds, ravishing kanaka flowers adorning parks and sublime mango orchards imbued it with an ineffable, ethereal beauty[7]. Lectures were given in hundreds of halls every day, with eight different compounds, ten temples, three hundred apartments and dormitories gathering the 10,000 students and international scholars all under the tutelage of 2000 teachers[8].

Students would come from far and wide across the cul-de-sacs of the world, sometimes even as distant as the Malay Archipelago, the Korean peninsula, Japan and some suggest even from Europe and Africa. These Mahaviharas and august establishments of learning created a trellis via which the dissemination of Dhyana and Buddhism’s philosophical and spiritual tenets across Asia and beyond were feasible. It is hypothesised that some monks would travel to Japan from here, while some Japanese pupils came all the way to India, but in most cases, it would travel to China first and then to Japan.

While India was the birthplace of Dhyana, China played an indispensable role in its transformation into Chan, a phenomenological tradition that would eventually blossom into Zen in Japan. This evolution was not merely a geographical sojourn but a philosophical and cultural flux, facilitated by the dynamic exchange of ideas along the Silk Road and through the ancient universities of India. These ancient réseaux tied the Indian subcontinent and China together, creating a rich confluence of knowledge, art, spirituality and cultural practices that configure China till this day.

The genesis of Chan can be traced back to the pertinacious endeavours of Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang, who braved perilous excursions across mountains and deserts to reach the revered monasteries of Nalanda and Vikramashila in India. He carried back wagonloads of 657 manuscripts that he sedulously translated for the previous years and these were copied many more times, translated many more times and carried many more times to places like Siberia, Mongolia, Korea and Japan[9].

Faxian, who travelled to India during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (4th–5th century CE), meticulously documented his quest and translated several Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, establishing the foundation for the initial spread of Indian Buddhism in China. Following in his footsteps, Xuanzang undertook a monumental pilgrimage during the Tang Dynasty (7th century CE)[10], mastering Sanskrit and studying under the greatest Indian Buddhist masters of his time. His return to China marked a turning point, as he translated and introduced essential texts on Yogacara and Madhyamaka axiology, enriching Chinese Buddhist thought[11].

However, it was only with the arrival of the legendary Indian monk, Bodhidharma, that Buddhism was truly instilled into the heart of Chinese culture. Bodhidharma’s saga to China marked a watershed moment in the history of Buddhist thought that would incentivise travellers like Faxian and Xuanzang to later make the peregrinations they did. Known in Chinese as Damo and in Japanese as Daruma, he is often put on the pedestal as the First Patriarch of Chan Buddhism.

Bodhidharma’s life is shrouded in myth and legend, woven with hagiographical narratives that render him a figure of chimerical dulia. According to tradition, Bodhidharma was born as a South Indian prince of the Pallava dynasty in Kanchipuram[12], renowned even today for its coruscating mystical dimension. He was the third son of a puissant king but renounced his royal heritage to pursue spiritual enlightenment under the guidance of Prajnatara, the 27th Indian Patriarch of Buddhism[13].

Fulfilling his master’s dying wish, Bodhidharma embarked on a precarious voyage to China, carrying the recondite teachings of Dhyana and Buddhism. His arrival in Guangzhou during the Liu Song Dynasty (5th–6th century CE) marked the conception of Chan Buddhism in China. Bodhidharma’s teachings exalted shinjin over intellectual discourse, advocating “wall-gazing meditation” as a means of realising one’s Buddha-nature[14]. This revolutionary approach diverged from traditional Buddhist practices, paving the way for the experiential ethos that became the insignia of Chan.

Bodhidharma’s encounter with Emperor Wu of Liang, a devout Buddhist known for his patronage of temples and scriptures, is legendary. When asked by the Emperor about the merit of his pious deeds, Bodhidharma’s stentorian reply, “No merit at all”, shocked the Emperor. He explained that true merit arises not from external acts but from self-realisation and inner awakening, reflecting Chan’s radical invocation on direct insight[15].

Following this encounter, Bodhidharma retreated to Mount Song and resided at the caravanserai of the anachronistic, colonnaded Shaolin Temple, where he maintained a state of lucubration facing a wall for nine years. This act of unwavering introspection became the totem of Chan’s didactic focus on samadhi[16] and earned him the title of “The Wall-Gazing Brahmin.” His teachings laid the spiritual foundation for the evolution of Chan Buddhism, which integrated Indian Dhyana with Daoist spontaneity and Chinese metaphysical inquiries.

Bodhidharma’s sempiternal impetus proffered beyond his Hierophantic teachings; he is also credited with laying the cornerstone of Shaolin martial arts, a story rooted in both history and legend. Upon arriving at Shaolin, Bodhidharma observed that the monks were physically weak and often fatigued from maintaining prolonged higher states of consciousness like samadhi, zazen and ekagrata. To balustrade their bodies and minds, he introduced a series of dynamic exercises known as “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Tendon Change Classic) and “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Cleansing Classic).

These exercises were derived from Indian martial traditions, particularly Kalaripayattu, an ancient martial art from Kerala, known for its zealous movements, swift agility and breath control techniques. By integrating these dynamic exercises with noesis, Bodhidharma laid the propaedeutic groundwork for what would later evolve into the iconic Shaolin Kung Fu and other martial arts globally[17].

The synergy between Dhyana and martial arts became a hallmark of the Shaolin Monastery, where physical discipline was seen as a means to cultivate mental clarity, self-mastery and noetic insight. This comprehensive approach to self-realisation contributed to the unique development of Chan in China, which integrated metacognition with embodied practice.

Bodhidharma’s teachings were transmitted acroamatically through a lineage of disciples, starting with his successor, Huineng, the Sixth Patriarch of Chan, who continued to develop and spread the tradition throughout China. Under Huineng, Chan embosomed a more accessible approach, exemplifying “sudden enlightenment” as opposed to gradual cultivation, a concept that was inculcated by later Chan and Zen masters[18].

Buddhism remains a major religion in China, with sects like Tibetan Buddhism, Chan (Zen) Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism continuing to thrive and frame spiritual practices and cultural, artistic and metaphysical spheres. Iconic sites like the Leshan Giant Buddha and the Mogao Caves, with their Daedalian frescoes, highlight Buddhism’s footprints on architecture and art in China.

Buddhist iconography shapes Chinese painting, sculpture, calligraphy and poetry, while festivals like Vesak and the Ghost Festival draw millions to temples for prayers, incense offerings and charity.

Buddhism’s spiritual ontology, especially the Chan focus on introspection and self-realisation, has deeply ramified Chinese thought, impacting Confucianism, Daoism and modern secular ethics. Practices like mindfulness and meditation have fanned the ancient, cauterised burns in contemporary China, contributing to wellness movements. Chan Buddhism's accent on simplicity has inspired Chinese arts, including poetry, painting, calligraphy and tea ceremonies.

As the teachings of Chan Buddhism voyaged across the East China Sea, they were championed by Japan, where they evolved into Zen Buddhism. This transformation was not just a religious migration but a profound shift that mirrored the changing spiritual and cultural landscape of Japan during the Asuka period (6th century CE).

One of the most striking ways Zen Buddhism influenced Japan that seems to have been evanesced due to generational amnesia was through the Zen Buddhist and Hindu ahimsa (non-violence). In 675 AD, Emperor Tenmu issued a decree prohibiting the consumption of beef, horse, dog, chicken and monkey meat, reinforcing Buddhist and Hindu ideals of adulation for life[19]. For over 1,200 years, meat-eating - especially the slaughter of cows - was considered taboo[20]. At that time, no other country, except India, upheld such scrupulous approbation for cattle.

In the 16th century, Saint Francis Xavier and his Christian missionaries disturbed the culture of Japan, forcefully converting myriad Japanese people to Christianity, changing their customs such as this aversion from meat. However, their accomplishments met strong resistance. The Samurai, under the command of the legendary General Hideyoshi, expelled the Jesuits, issuing the "Purge Directive Order of the Jesuits." Among its eleven directives were: 1. The immediate end of the Japanese slave trade, with all enslaved Japanese women to be returned home. 2. The prohibition of meat consumption, ensuring that cows and horses were never slaughtered. 3. The protection of Buddhist temples from desecration. 4. The cessation of forced conversions to Christianity.

For a brief period, Japan remained untainted by the Western World, and the Samurai upheld the nation’s traditions. However, by the 19th century, Japan once again faced external pressures. In 1856, U.S. Consul General Townsend Harris slaughtered a cow on temple grounds and, alongside his interpreter Hendrick Heusken, consumed its meat with wine. This act outraged the local population, leading farmers to hide their cattle in fear of further sacrilege. The growing resentment led to Heusken’s assassination by a Ronin - a Samurai without a master - who was part of the growing anti-foreigner resistance.

Despite public outrage, this event marked the beginning of Japan’s forced Westernisation, often equated with the erosion of its cultural purity. By 1872, Emperor Meiji issued the Nikujiki Saitai law, breaking two longstanding Buddhist monastic precepts - it allowed monks to marry and consume beef. To further solidify the shift, the Emperor publicly declared his love for beef and mutton, signalling a radical departure from centuries-old customs.

The backlash was immediate. On February 18, 1872, ten Buddhist monks stormed the ImperialPalace in an attempt to assassinate the Emperor, declaring that meat consumption was “destroying the soul of Japan.” Five monks were shot and killed. Though suppressed in Japan, The Times in Britain reported the event. But the damage had been done - the Samurai were disbanded, replaced by a Western-style conscripted military and Japan rapidly took up industrialisation and foreign trade. With no one remaining to protect the nation’s traditions, Japan’s 1,200-year-old culture fell apart, paving the way for the meat-eating practices prevalent today in Japan.

As Buddhism travelled from India to China and then to Japan, it carried elements of Indian spirituality, including the worship of Hindu deities. These deities were repurposed into the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, preserving their significance while localising their worship practices.

One prominent example is Saraswati, known in Japan as Benzaiten. Originally a Vedic goddess of knowledge, music and the arts, Benzaiten became associated with water, wealth and protection in Japan. She is venerated at prominent temples like Enoshima Shrine and Itsukushima Shrine, where her radiance extends to both Buddhist and Shinto practices. Her depiction, often holding a biwa (a traditional lute), reflects her origin as the goddess of wisdom and arts[21].

Similarly, Ganesh, venerated as Kangiten - also known by Kangiten, Shoten, ‘Ganabachi’ (Ganapathy is a name of Lord Ganesh in Hinduism) or ‘Binayakaten’(Vinayaka is a name of Lord Ganesh in Hinduism) - in Japan, found his place within Japanese Buddhism. Portrayed as a dual-bodied, embracing figure, Kangiten symbolises prosperity, joy and harmonious relationships. His worship remains popular among businesspeople seeking success and fortune, illustrating how spiritual symbols transcend cultural boundaries while adapting to local contexts[22].

As well as these deities, we can find ancient Shiva Lingas[23] in Japan and Lord Shiva also represented as Daikokuten, Lord Narayan as Naraenten, the goddess Lakshmi as Kichijoten, Agni Dev as Katen, Lord Brahma as Boten, Yama Dev as Emmaten, Kubera as Bishamonten, Devraj Indra as Taishakuten, Varuna Dev as Suiten and Kumbhira[24] as Kompira[25].

Even as Japan modernised, Zen Buddhism continued to shape its philosophy, aesthetics and daily life. Zen’s ictus on Spartanism, spontaneity and shinjin resonated almost intrinsically with native Japanese traditions, reinforcing ideals of Sophrosyne (balance and self-control). The wabi-sabi aesthetic - celebrating imperfection and transience - naturally aligned with Zen’s teachings on mindfulness and impermanence.

Zen Buddhism profoundly shaped Japanese aesthetics, especially in ink painting, calligraphy and the tea ceremony. The minimalist design of Zen gardens, featuring rocks, raked sand and sparse plant life, reflects the ideals of simplicity and contemplation. These gardens evoke stillness and pneumatic clarity, serving as sacrosanct spaces for meditation.

Zen’s impression also permeated martial arts, including Kendo, Iaido and Aikido, where practitioners seek not just physical skill but also spiritual harmony and mental clarity. This holistic approach to discipline reflects Zen’s emphasis on mindfulness and serenity, influencing not only religious and philosophical thought but also everyday Japanese life.

Zen Buddhism in Japan produced influential masters who contributed to the nation’s spiritual and cultural development. Eisai, who introduced Rinzai Zen from China and Dogen, founder of the Soto school, were pivotal in embedding Zen profusely within the Japanese cultural psyche.

The cultural exchange between India and Japan is not only spiritual but also linguistic. With the introduction of Buddhism, Sanskrit made its way to Japan, influencing religious vocabulary and phonetics. This linguistic influence is particularly evident in Shingon Buddhism, which preserves Sanskrit chants and mantras (shingon, meaning “true words”).

The mantra “Om[26]” is used in Japanese Buddhism as On, maintaining its sacred vibrational quality. Promiscuous Japanese temple names and deities also retain phonetic traces of Sanskrit origins, highlighting the deep cultural and spiritual connections between India and Japan.

Moreover, the Siddham script, an ancient form of Sanskrit writing, is still studied by Japanese monks to preserve the teachings of Shingon Buddhism and has been taught in Japan for aeons. Hajime Nakamura comments, “The Sanskrit lore has been kept in Japan for nearly 1,400 years in the colleges attached to the great Buddhist temples. It was Kukai, posthumously called St. Kobo (774-835), who started the study of Sanskrit letters, known as Shittan, a Japanese equivalent of the Sanskrit word siddham, with which ancient Indian inscriptions and works often begin.”[27] The Siddham script also contributed to the formation of the letters in the Japanese alphabet. For example, the Hiragana character ‘mi’ is almost identical in strokes to the Hindi character ‘ma’.

The same goes for some Devanagari characters and Brahmi characters that correspond to Hiragana, Katakana and even Kanji characters.

The Sanskrit language also shares similarities with words in Japanese.

From the Himalayan slopes which cascade in emerald foliage, where scarlet rhododendrons burst forth in flames of passion, golden marigolds shimmer like a diadem atop the lofty crown, the pale, dreamy pastel hues of alpine flowers draped in ruby whisper soft solfeggio frequencies, Dhyana was carried gracefully by silken rivulets of liquid silver into the rushing rivers of China as Chan shaping its art, poetry and martial traditions. These streams rippled through the hearts of sages and halls of monasteries before merging into the estuary of Japan. What began as a meditative practice in the heart of Sanatana Dharma evolved through the flamboyant intellectual and spiritual traditions of China before coming to a crescendo in the disciplined yet intuitive essence of Zen in Japan. Along this journey, each civilisation imbued Dhyana with its own ethos - India’s profound metaphysical depth, China’s Daoist spontaneity, and Japan’s refined aestheticism - creating a rich and harmonious symphony of wisdom.

Beyond the realm of meditation, this odyssey shaped martial arts, art, philosophy and the way of life for billions, leaving an indelible mark on the spiritual and cultural identity of East Asia. The interplay of Hindu deities within Japanese Buddhism, the historical reverence for non-violence and the enduring Zen principles in modern Japanese aesthetics all exemplify how deeply interwoven and interlaced these traditions remain.

Yet, as Japan embraces modernity, the echoes of this ancient wisdom persist. The principles of mindfulness, simplicity and self-realisation continue to be a fillip for seekers across the world, transcending borders and epochs. The odyssey of Dhyana, Chan and Zen is not merely a historical passage but a living testament to the universality of truth - a journey that remains ever-relevant in the quest for inner peace and enlightenment.

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